Social Interaction And Children With Autism Spectrum...

Social interaction is defined as â€Å"a process of reciprocal stimulation and response between two people. It develops competition, interaction, influences social roles and status, and influences people in development of social relationships.† (What is SOCIAL INTERACTION) By adolescence most individuals are fairly competent at social interaction and have a general understanding of what is required of them in most social situations. For high functioning autistic children, this is far from the case. Simple interactions between themselves and others can be confusing and difficult to navigate without proper adaptive training in social behavior. In the following sections, we will explain the need for this training, how it is implemented, and the†¦show more content†¦Socialization deficits are a major source of impairment regardless of cognitive or language ability for individuals with ASD. Furthermore, social skill deficits do not remit with development. Indeed, impairmen t and distress may increase as children approach adolescence because the social milieu becomes more complex and the child becomes more aware of their social disability† (White, 2006, p. 1858) As Dr. White mentioned social deficiency is not a situation that goes away with age and can have lifelong effects if not addressed by an intervention to help the child to learn acceptable and expected social behavior. These social impairments manifest themselves in many varying ways and degrees such as â€Å"speech, linguistic conventions and interpersonal interaction.† (White, 2006, p. 1858) Problematic areas include impairments in turn-taking in conversation and the ability to understand other’s perspective, proper use of pitch and inflection in their speech, obsessively dwelling on certain topics, difficulty in expressing and understanding emotions, and difficulty with nonliteral language uses such as metaphor and sarcasm. These impairments make communication with others difficult and uncomfortable for the ASD child and can cause a cascading effect, causing them to withdrawal from social situation out of frustration with their inability and embarrassment, or cause peers to distance themselves from the ASD child because of this seemingly awkward behavior and

Functions Of A Steady State Exercise Essay - 1898 Words

Assign-3794 3. Steady state exercise is the activity where we perform while maintaining the same heart and muscle movements. Steady state exercise affects many body functions. If the steady state exercise performed for months consistently, it will increase the overall endurance of an individual. The below are the certain physiological functions affected during steady state: Cardiac output: The aerobic exercise performed at steady rate causes the body to increase the amount of blood pumped by the heart. Cardiac output is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. The Stroke volume is defined as the quantity of blood pumped at each heart beat, while the body going from rest to steady state exercise. Cardiac output increases rapidly even more gradually until it reaches a plateau. By that time we develop an increased number of capillaries, greater opening of existing capillaries, more effective blood redistribution and increased blood volume. Due to this, capillaries improve the body ability to deliver oxygen and nutrients to muscle and also to remove the waste products. Cardiac output is generally calculated by: Cardiac output = Heart rate * Stroke volume Blood pressure: The blood pressure of an individual is affected before and after reaching the steady state. .There is increase in the systolic and diastolic blood pressure during steady state. These increases in the pressure represent the pressure in arteries. This pressure is while the heart is contracting andShow MoreRelatedEffects of a Hypoglycaemic Comapred to a Hyperglycaemic Diet895 Words   |  4 PagesA sub-maximal steady state exercise requires carbohydrates and fats to be oxidised in order to create sufficient ATP for the body to function and complete muscle contractions. The main energy sources being used throughout the test were the aerobic glycolytic and the aerobic lipolysis systems. To determine which energy system was predominately being used we can use RER. If RER is a value of .7 the energy system being predominantly used is the aerobic lipolysis system, where as a value closer to 1Read MoreMajor Depressive Disorder Case Study848 Words   |  4 Pagesdisorders i n the United States† (Olson, 2017). Aerobic exercise has been the focus of an effective treatment for depression. One study was done that looked at exercise as an â€Å"augmentation strategy for patients reporting persistent cognitive deficits following selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment† (Olson, 2017). Groups in this study showed improvements in cognitive control. Overall, there has been inadequate research conducted that focuses on the benefits of using exercise as an interventionRead MoreThe Effectiveness of Deep-Breathing Exercises After Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery891 Words   |  4 PagesThe purpose of this evidence-based nursing practice paper is to discuss the effectiveness of deep-breathing exercises in the care of a patient who is recently postoperative a coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG). It will also critique two professional research studies on this topic, and will answer three essential questions about each study. What are the r esults of the study? Are the results of the study valid? How are the findings clinically relevant to this patient? The patient, whoRead MoreThe Purpose Warm Up and Why717 Words   |  3 Pagesgradual increase in intensity or different intensities at a time. The warm up should be based around the current activity, this should be seen as if the activity is going to be circuit training, and you would have a more light intensity warm up. Function of a warm up- †¢ Increase the heart rate †¢ Raise the body’s temperature †¢ Prepare the major joints †¢ Mentally prepare the participant Components of the warm up are, pulse raiser and dynamic stretches; The warm up should increase the heart rateRead MoreWork Rate and Oxygen Uptake1282 Words   |  6 PagesThe Relationship Between Work Rate And Oxygen Uptake During Incremental Submaximal Exercise Introduction Oxygen uptake () describes the rate at which oxygen is utilized by tissues (Burton et al, 2004). is determined by heart rate (heart beats each minute), stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped from one ventricle each beat) and arteriovenous oxygen difference (difference in blood-oxygen content between arterial and venous blood). Oxygen is needed for respiration, the chemical process thatRead MoreHuman Capital And Non Physical Capital1535 Words   |  7 Pagesdifferent steady state for different countries, thus we can expect conditional convergence rather absolute convergence. Lastly, the differences in rate-of-return can be regarded as insufficient and necessary condition to international capital flow. Methods of MRW They start from reviewing the textbook Solow Model, which considers the rates of saving, population growth and technological progress as exogenous, the Cobb-Douglas production function is: Y(t)=K(t)^ÃŽ ± ã€â€"[A(t)L(t)]ã€â€"^(1-ÃŽ ±) (1) In steady stateRead MoreDesigning A Commander ( Cocom ) Theater Campaign Plans1273 Words   |  6 Pagesis the forcing function for a GCC’s Theater Campaign Plan (TCP). Theater Campaign Plans are the baseline of the theater-planning construct. They focus on the command’s steady state activities and link these activities to achieving strategic and military objectives . Operational design links EUCOM theater strategy to policy Operational design was correctly used in the development of the European Command’s (EUCOM) TCP. This theater strategy is inextricably linked to United States policy and focusesRead MoreThe Effects Of Physical Education On Children1594 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to the New York Times the United States is the 11th worst country for obesity rates out of 15 developed countries and the Program for International Student Assessment measurement found the U.S. ranked 31st in math literacy and 23rd in science (Klein). Since 1980, the obesity rate for children has been rising at a steady rate, while the education and cognitive ability of children has been falling at a steady rate. We can assume there is correlation between the physical fitness of childrenRead MoreEc 301 midterm1167 Words   |  5 Pagespoints) Briefly explain how the following would shift the IS function to the right. a. A change to lump-sum taxation (Specify whether increase or decrease is needed to shift IS curve to the right.) b. A change to government spending (Specify whether increase or decrease is needed to shift IS curve to the right.) 6. (7 points) Explain briefly how a change to the following MS, MD, or P (ceteris paribus) would shift the LM function to the right. Include in your discussion whether the variableRead MoreEndorphins : A Popular Topic With Brain And Someone s Mood1290 Words   |  6 Pagesmood in regards to exercise. To quote Legally Blonde, â€Å"Exercise gives you endorphins. Endorphins make you happy,† however, endorphins and exercise are slightly more complicated then Miss Elle Woods states. Endorphins are neurotransmitters that pass signals through the brain, blocking pain and controlling emotions (Sheve). People experience a rush of endorphins after extreme exertion, which means one cannot be lazy as endorphins are not released when witting on the couch. Exercise also helps to create

Features of Ancient Roman Literature for Comedies- myassignmenthelp

Question: Write about theFeatures of Ancient Roman Literature for Comedies. Answer: The main aim of the topic is to present arguments in terms of advantages and disadvantages of Roman Literature. Different authors have come up with their views to make their argument strong while discussing the nature of Roman Literature. Literature of Rome is having a subject matter, which is varied greatly. The literature inculcates that forces the reader to make a larger number of generalizations, which are simplistic in nature. According to Garnsey and Saller, (2014; p.12; Chp: 10), Roman Empire produced a lot of Literature, comedies, dramas and the Romans avoided tragedies. It contributes to the golden age of literature. According to Mitchell, (2014; p.16; Chp: 4), however, the literature lacks ground as mostly it is influenced by Greeks as the Romans were aware about their literary inferiority in the beginning. The breadth of the Roman Literature can be well understood not only in the context of production of a greater variety which has its existence during the time of the minor fragments of which has been made to the readers through the passing of ages. It also inculcates the vast period of time and geography of the country, which are incorporated within the context of ancient Rome (Quin, 2014; p. 71; Chp: 3). Therefore, in this context, it is significant to discuss, the nature of the Roman Literature and how this literature is still being considered among the group of historians The advantages of Ancient Roman Literature By taking into account the positive view of ancient Literature of Rome, it can be said that The writing of prose by Cicero during the golden age of Roman literature in 80th century BC generally carries the characteristics of certainly a greater quality of Literature, which stated about the culture of ancient Rome, was the capacity to appreciate assimilate and accommodate the best that could be gained from the allied and conquered territories. (Frank, 2015; p.14; Chp: 7). This cannot be taken from a negative perspective, as such that it came from many other aspects of the society of Rome, which opened to the variety of cultures, ideas and religions of Rome. For example, many leaders and emperors belonging to the stock of foreign, some never arrived Roman expect for a fewer number of times (Frank, 2015; p.14; Chp: 7). Roman pax Romana: The environment of a stable nature, which was provided by the hegemony of Rome, enabled a greater variety of literature and arts, which are to be created and enjoyed by the greater number of population. (Howston, 2014; p.9; Chp: 9). The poverb, which is taken from Aristotle defines well the pragmatism of Roman Primium vivera, deinde Philosophari which means the philosophy must be bred first and then comes everything (Howston, 2014; p.9; Chp: 9). Literacy of Rome: During the reign of Augustus from 27BC, it is believed that it is to make sure that there is no literature if the people of literature cannot create or consume literature (Garnsey Saller, 2014; p.12; Chp: 10). The success of Rome and wealth has given birth to an increasing number of population who are literate, even this was prevailed among the people who are in lower graded ranks, so much, that the graffiti can be found all over the walls of Pomp and tabernae of Public. The schools of Roman gave the essentials and schooling of Rome frequently stressed on the travels to the foreign lands such as Crete or Greece where the techniques of literary and Orientals can be made with perfect. The historian name Tacitus painted a memorable picture of Rome in the 2nd Century BC. The spreading of Literacy in the civilization of Rome by Quintilian, Aulus Gellius and Apuleius in the second century BC was being supported by those aspects which might be expected in the modern age society and this incorporate the stability of economics and law, a stable social context to give permission to the study of individual. The societys need for the people in terms of higher education, benefiting the individual while pursuing a higher level of knowledge and education, providing the cultural background, which renders popular value to the consumption and production of the literature, are the general expectations for the modern society (Garnsey Saller, 2014; p.12; Chp: 10). The roman literature provides access to the thinking of elitist and the their works which is an important part of the jigsaw. The creation of the art, literature and progress is the result of the individual and it gives the feeling of the individual, which makes the individual as if they are the part of this environment. The entry to the Greek work was a huge effect in a different ways, which reflect the effect of domination. The Latin writings give importance in the rhetoric, the frame of speaking and the art of persuading. The writings of Ammianus, Rutilius Claudius and Aurelius Symmachus wrote poetries with great talent in the Middle ages. These authors demonstrated the features of modernism in the classical literature. The speaking of Public must carry a greater importance for the literati Romans because many of them wanted successful career in politics. After Rome became the empire, the capacity to persuade and impress people by the words spoken lost its importance. However, training in the rhetoric continued in order to flourish and to affect the styles of the writing. A larger part of the rhetoric includes the ability to present a familiar idea while striking a innovative manner in order to attract the attractions. The authors of Latin became the masters of the variety of arts. The disadvantages of Roman Literature The disadvantages of Roman literature are based on the generalizations, which are made by the Literature of Rome includes the foremost and important disadvantage of the Literature is that the literature is the copy of Greece and it is quite evident in the writings of Tacitus and Sallust. (Mitchell, 2014:p.15; chp:4). Secondly, there is an influence of the political and imperial propagandistic, which interrupted the creativity (Dihle, 2013; p. 10;Chp: 12). The influence of the Greeks on the literature of Rome is undeniable, basically during the period of republic when the Romans are importantly military and agricultural society and hence having a language which do not have flexibility of expressions which is required in the higher degree of literature. Such weakness continuously strengthened the main aspects of the Roman Literature (Dihle, 2013; p. 10; Chp: 12). The affect of the supervision of the politics produced where parallel to each other. Through this observation can be rightly pointed during Augustus and Caesar (McGill, 2013; p.17; Chp 5). However, the control of the politics literature would carry out its cost and prove damages in the long run. (Flower, 2014;p. 20; Chp: 7). There are similar examples such as Ptolemaic Alexandria along with the famous library which is world famous, but was not the focus of innovation and the creativity and the reason behind this is the ongoing political influence. This process enhanced the censorship process, which went in parallel with the increasing focus to the mode of languages. During the time of the rule of Nero, the situation became dramatic and by then the Roman literature was entering a long period of the relatively based flatness and the production of literature is mediocre, it is not based on merit in any respect. The Roman Literature lacks the main poetic vocabulary, which hints the poetry of Greece. The reason is that the Romans used to invent words and this lead to a greater extent, this leads to the Lack of important poetic wordings (Flower, 2014;p. 20; Chp: 7). Conclusion Therefore, to conclude, it can be stated that, the advantages and disadvantages of the Ancient evidence of Rome gives a detail idea about the nature of Roman Literature and their importance ,which is still being carried out in the modern society. Roman literature is rick with classical essence and this reflects the change of period during the ancient time and how the people lived under the rule of monarch. The literature has both negative and positive views, but all together they provide the readers about the historical importance of the ancient Rome. References Dihle, A. (2013).Greek and Latin literature of the Roman empire: from Augustus to Justinian. Routledge. Flower, H. I. (Ed.). (2014).The Cambridge companion to the Roman republic. Cambridge University Press. Frank, T. (2015).Life and literature in the Roman Republic(Vol. 7). Cambridge University Press. Garnsey, P., Saller, R. P. (2014).The Roman Empire: economy, society and culture. Bloomsbury Publishing. Howatson, M. C. (Ed.). (2013).The Oxford companion to classical literature. OUP Oxford. McGill, S. (2012).Plagiarism in Latin Literature. Cambridge University Press. Mitchell, S. (2014).A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284-641. John Wiley Sons. Quinn, K. (2014).Latin Explorations (routledge Revivals): Critical Studies in Roman Literature. Routledge.

Waiting For Godot Essays (669 words) - Fiction,

Waiting For Godot Existentialists believe, in short, that life is pointless and man petty and miserable. Though existentialism covers many topics the beliefs about religion remain some of the more notable. Samuel Beckett embraces the idea that religion is absurd, irrational and pointless. He portrays those views through his play Waiting For Godot. Beckett uses the characters in Waiting For Godot to depict his satirical, existentialist views on religion. Beckett uses Godot as a vengeful savior to Estragon and Vladimir. Just as one goes to hell for betraying God Estragon and Vladimir receive punishment for betraying Godot. Estragon: And what if we dropped him? (Pause) If we dropped him? Vladimir: Hed punish us. Pg59 In the same way, one may acquire the gift of heaven for obeying God and Estragon and Vladimir shall receive a reward for their obedience to Godot. Vladimir: Unless Godot comes. Estragon: And if he comes? Vladimir: We will be saved. Pg60 In addition, Beckett satirizes human behavior in the absence of God through the actions of Estragon and Vladimir in the absence of Godot. Estragon: Thats all a pack of lies! (Shaking the boy by the arm.) Tell us the truth! Boy: (Trembling) But it is the truth sir! Vladimir: Whats the matter with you? Estragon: Im unhappy. Pg54 The messenger boy represent the enlightened. Beckett makes a distinct parallel between the boy and Gods angles. The boy portrays a prophet sent directly from Godot to inform Vladimir, or the clergy, how to lead Estragon, or the people of the church. Vladimir: You have a message from Godot? Boy: Yes sir. Vladimir: Well, what is it?. Boy: Mr. Godot told me to tell you he wont come this evening but surely To- morrow. Pg53-55 The boy also plays the only one to ever see or have any direct contact with Godot. Vladimir: You work for Mr. Godot?. Boy: Yes sir. What am I to tell Mr. Godot sir ? Vladimir: Tell him(He hesitates.)tell him you saw us. Pg55-56 Beckett uses Lucky and Pozzo to show mans inability to see his own absurd behavior. Estragon and Vladimir think Pozzos conduct strange, and his treatment of Lucky inhumane. They fail to see themselves and Godots disregard for them in this ridiculous pair. Pozzo: Up pig! (Pause) Every time he drops he falls asleep. (Jerks the rope.) Up hog!Back! (Enter Lucky backwards.) Stop!(Lucky stops.) Turn!(Lucky turns.)Coat! (Lucky advances, gives the coat, goes back to his place, takes up the bag.) Pg21-22 Just as Lucky jumps for Pozzo, Estragon and Vladimir jump for Godot. Estragon and Vladimir symbolize the church as a whole. Beckett uses Vladimir as the clergy who ministers to Estragon as the misguided masses. Vladimir never strays from his faith to Godot. He serves as a constant reminder that Godot will come. Estragon: Lets go. Vladimir: We Cant. Estragon: Why not? Vladimir: Were waiting for Godot. Pg8 Since the boy symbolizes a holy herald he confers only with the clergy, in this case, Vladimir. Vladimir: To-morrow everything will be better. Estragon: How do you make that out? Vladimir: Did you not here what that child said? Estragon: No. Pg56 Upon receiving the divine word it is the job of the preacher to get the message out to the people of the faith. Estragon: Where shall we go? Vladimir: Not far. Estragon: Why not? Vladimir: We have to come back To-morrow. Estragon: What for? Vladimir: To wait for Godot. Pg107 Beckett uses the figures in Waiting For Godot to portray his cynical, existentialist views on religion. The broad topic of existentialism covers far more than religion, though it prevails as the most popular aspect. Beckett thinks religion silly and impractical and shows those beliefs in his play Waiting For Godot. Existentialism also covers themes such as human nature and mere existence. One may define it as the belief that life is destitute and man meaningless. English Essays

Assessing What Students Learn

Assessing What Students Learn Free Online Research Papers ASSESING WHAT STUDENTS LEARN AND HOW IT CAN BE MEASURED IN AN ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNE COURSE CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND Assessing student learning outcomes in the advertising campaigns course: What do students learn and how can we measure it? The call for assessment is not new, nor is it a passing academic fad (Boyer, 1990; Maki, 2004, Rowntree, 1987). Accrediting bodies demand to know what our students are learning, while institutions of higher learning face growing political pressure to account for student learning. Evidence of this pressure comes in the form of the Spellings Report, an attempt to provide a comprehensive national strategy for postsecondary education in the United States (Chronicle Review, 2006). What do we think students in advertising programs should learn in our classes? How should we measure what they learn? How can we translate what we discover to improve student-learning opportunities? These are questions that accrediting bodies for journalism and mass communications, Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC) and business, Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) ask programs to answer in the accreditation process. Those questions are also asked at institutional levels by regional accrediting bodies and by national associations such as American Association for Higher Education and American Association for Colleges and Universities. In 2004 ACEJMC began requiring programs that ask to be accredited to provide not only a plan for assessment, but evidence demonstrating that results are used to improve curriculum and learning (ACEJMC Web site). Likewise, AACSB requires that â€Å"the school uses well documented systematic processes to develop, monitor, evaluate and revise the substance and delivery of the curricula of degree programs and to assess the impact of the curricula on learning† (AACSB International Eligibility Procedures and Accreditation Standards for Business Accreditation, 2006, p. 15). Maki (2002) and Hersh (2005) make strong arguments that the commitment to assessment should come from within the institution, not from politicians, businessmen or consultants outside the academy. They contend that by taking ownership for accountability through assessment, faculty may be able to avoid the one-size-fits-all No Child Left Behind-style testing regime. More importantly, they add, academicians need to work toward good assessment practices not because they are being forced to do so by institutions and accrediting bodies as an act of accountability, but because it reflects a commitment to learning about learning (personal correspondence Maki, 2006). Assessing student-learning shifts the focus from what instructors teach to what students learn. While this concept has been the topic of conversation in the academy for a while, exactly how to do this and how to measure what students learn haven’t been fully explored with respect to advertising. Jeremy Cohen, former editor of Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, issued a challenge to the academy: â€Å"If assessment is to play a meaningful role . . . it is time to create depth and breadth of understanding of assessment theory and implementation through increased availability of professional quality development† (Cohen, 2004, p. 6). Assessment is particularly challenging for advertising programs because they encompass different disciplines – communication studies, journalism and business – that have different sets of assessment/accreditation criteria. An appropriate place to start with assessment in journalism and mass communications is the capstone course, such as the advertising campaigns class (Rosenberry Vicker, 2006). However, literature regarding assessment of student learning in said courses is sparse. In fact, most studies that have dealt with issues in the advertising campaigns course focused on what skills the industry values (Ganahl, 2003; Benigni Cameron, 1999), students’ attitudes toward grades (Umphrey Fullerton, 2004), and the importance of teamwork (Ahles Bosworth, 2004). However, no studies that we were aware of measure direct and indirect indicators of learning as well as other outcomes of the campaigns course that may benefit students as they develop into advertising professionals. This study will investigate learning outcomes identified by professors and look at student comments about those course objectives. The findings of this study can help advertising educators develop assessment tools for stude nt learning related to competence in understanding and applying the skills and tools of the profession that are beyond the grades students receive. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this paper is to investigate how educators might define measurable outcomes for advertising campaigns courses to help faculty develop a sustainable plan to evaluate student learning. This paper argues that the appropriate place to start assessing learning for advertising students is the capstone advertising course. It offers a model for teaching and learning that employs several components of an assessment framework offered by Shulman (2007). CHAPTER TWO Literature Review Grading and Assessment Some faculty might argue that they are already â€Å"doing† assessment because they are grading student work. To some extent this is true. However, faculty needs to be careful to make some important distinctions (Cohen, 2004). Grading student work such as papers and exams produces summative evaluations, which means that the work that is generated is measured against specific outcomes designed for the course rather than evaluating information about the learning process. Secondly, according to Cohen, students, not instructors, are accountable for their learning. The power of assessment lies in the feedback that instructors receive to improve learning opportunities. Rather than a summative emphasis, he contends, the focus should be on formative work because grades are not considered to be a valid indicator of the process of learning that occurs in a course. How, then, can faculty systematically evaluate and improve student learning? Do faculty grade what students actually learn or only the assignments they submit? This question is especially perplexing, given the complex, collaborative enterprise that is part of the campaigns course, and will be explored in more depth later in this paper. Professors are often not entirely comfortable with grading (Barnes, 1985), but many use it as their main evaluation tool. Pollio and Beck (2000) found that â€Å"students wished professors were less grade-oriented, while professors wished students were more learning-oriented† (p. 45) In fact, students often â€Å"confuse grades with learning and do not view grades as a snapshot† (Giese, 2005, p. 255). Grades can be important in the advertising/public relations job search after graduation, although employers often look at other factors when making hiring decisions, including experience, level of confidence, and the quality of the applicant ’s portfolio. While professors appear to believe that grades in advertising and public relations courses generally reflect the quality of a student’s course work, they also think that grades are not necessarily an adequate predictor of a student’s potential as employee (Ganahl, 2003). Still, grades can be an important motivating factor, especially for younger, less experienced students (Umphrey Fullerton, 2004). In their study of advertising majors’ attitudes toward grades, Umphrey and Fullerton theorize that older and more experienced students may be less motivated by grades than younger students because they â€Å"notice less of a relationship between the time they spend studying and resultant grades† (p. 45). At the same time, they found that students who held creative positions on campaigns teams were not motivated by grades. Given that the course has a strong creative focus and almost all students enroll in it during their senior year, what other factors might motivate students to succeed in the course, if not the grade? A review of existing literature uncovers some factors that have been considered in the past. While grades are an important assessment tool for summative evaluations such as papers and exams, Cohen states that they are not considered to be a valid indicator of the process of learning that occurs in a course (Cohen, 2004). Shulman (2007) suggests that instead of measuring the learning that occurs in our classrooms by computing a grade based on how well students meet specific course objectives, learning should be measured via multiple measures such as course-embedded assessment. Why Begin Assessment with the Capstone Course? The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU) National Leadership Council (2007) provides support that the culminating experience â€Å"can be structured to show how well students can integrate their knowledge and apply it to complex problems, and students’ level of performance on them can be aggregated and made public.† Rosenberry and Vicker (2006) suggest that it is appropriate to begin assessment with the capstone course in mass communications programs because the culminating experience requires that students integrate and apply knowledge from their majors. The products they generate offer opportunities to reflect on the adequacy of students’ preparation in the program. The culminating experience gives students a chance to synthesize what they have learned during their academic careers and bring coherence and closure to their experience in the major. They suggest further that the capstone experience not only provides a sense of closure, but also one of exploration. Capstone courses push students to extend beyond their present knowledge. Rosenberry and Vicker offer three major themes that emerged from their research on capstone courses: (1) capstones reflect an integration and synthesis of knowledge, (2) they require students to apply knowledge to real-world situations, and (3) they help stu dents make a transition from the classroom to their careers. Other topics they identified include: â€Å"extension of knowledge, opportunities for in-depth study, reinforcement or extension of basic communication competencies, and development of higher-order or critical thinking skills† (Rosenberry Vicker, 2006, p. 270). Interestingly, they identify outcomes that are traditionally thought of as intellectual skills and abilities. Interpersonal skills do not emerge on their list. What should be taught in a campaigns course? A review of literature suggests students learn practical, professional and interpersonal skills (Benigni Cameron, 1999; Ahles Bosworth, 2004). The capstone course in most advertising and public relations programs has a â€Å"real-world† focus, meaning that students work on a campaign that will solve a real life client’s communication problem strategically and creatively. Benigni and Cameron argued the importance of real-world application: â€Å"perhaps the most important function of capstone courses in journalism and mass communications is to prepare students for the real world† (1999, p. 50). They suggest that these â€Å"real world† skills should include communication and planning skills, as well as an ability to base strategic decisions on sound research and theory. The goal of the capstone course is to synthesize skills learned from prerequisite courses in a collaborative learning environment, in which stu dents work in a team environment to create a campaign, they state. In their study, Benigni and Cameron investigated the role that interpersonal dynamics play in a student campaign both internally (within team structure) and externally (with client). They found that two-thirds of campaigns classes used a team approach as class format, with 94% of all presenters being graded on individual as well as team performance. Seventy-three percent of campaigns courses used peer evaluations, while 60% indicated that peer evaluations of other students were reflected in the final grade for those students. They conclude teamwork, therefore, is an important component of the campaigns course. Benigni and Cameron furthermore found that some programs teach about teamwork, team building, and problem solving, and consensus building, but teamwork is not covered in much detail in undergraduate advertising and public relations programs (Ahles Bosworth, 2004). Ahles and Bosworth suggest that effective teams generally earn higher grades and produce a better quality campaign for the client. They found that after students complete the campaigns course, they often have a â€Å"shared vision† of effective teams, characterized by strong work habits and human relations skills, but not necessarily professional skills. Human relations skills included reliability, dedication to the project, and teamwork attitude. Ahles and Bosworth conclude that students may rank human relations skills so high because they think those skills will help them achieve a better grade. Thus, the desire to have these skills is ultimately selfish. In the same study students ranked professional skills, such as advertising and public relations tactical skills, computer skills, and problem-solving skills, lowest. Principles of Assessment Understanding why assessment is needed and how assessment occurs in a cyclical process prepares us to explore what it is that faculty should assess. Lee S. Shulman, president of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, argues that assessment should be viewed essentially as a form of narrative (Shulman, 2007). He states that the story told by assessment is a function of the measurements taken, and those dimensions determine the possible directions the narrative might take. In other words, faculty needs to make clear their rationale for telling a particular narrative rather than alternative stories. What is it that advertising educators want to tell in their assessment story? What are the key indicators that those outcomes are being met that should be measured? Shulman (2007) offers â€Å"Seven Pillars of Assessment for Accountability† that can be used as a framework for developing an assessment plan. Four of them guided our work. 1. Become explicit about the story you need to tell and the rationale for choosing it. The story is driven by accrediting bodies to some extent. ACEJMC stipulates competencies that all graduates in accredited programs should know (see Appendix A for list). Another part of the story could be shaped by national standards for the discipline. The National Academic Committee of the American Advertising Federation (AAF), which is comprised of advertising practitioners and faculty, identified a coherent set of goals for advertising education (personal correspondence, Fullerton, 2007, see Appendix B for list). These competency lists give faculty some tools to use to set the outcomes they want their students to achieve – to create the story they want to tell about their programs. Another option for setting outcomes involves researching academic journals to see what other scholars have identified as important curricular areas for advertising. One direction the narrative could take could reveal how the goals of advertising education might link with goals of the institution’s general or liberal education, as some educators call for examining how learning and research are integrated across disciplinary boundaries (e.g., Gilbert, Schilt Ekland-Olson, 2005; AACU National Leadership Council, 2007). Ganahl, for example, surveyed alumni and faculty about the advertising/PR curriculum, finding those faculties were more supportive than professionals of a strong liberal arts education (2003). It is quite obvious at this point that to try to assess every possible aspect of the course at once is overwhelming, if not impossible. Faculty need not tell an epic story with their assessment. Rather they might conceptualize it as incremental steps over a period of time. This way assessment becomes an on-going activity and evolving story, rather than a snapshot taken just to have something to show an accrediting team. 2. Do not think that there is a â€Å"bottom line.† Once an instrument has been selected to assess a learning outcome (or competency), it is important to recognize what it measures and what it does not. Assessment results should be examined in the context of the particular narrative that is being told. This means that assessment that is focused to find the answer to a specific question cannot be generalized to conclude that assessment is complete or successful with one instrument. Rather, assessment is an on-going process of discovery. 3. Design multiple measures. An array of instruments will help provide a variety of assessment evidence from which to make informed pedagogical decisions. ACEJMC guidelines stipulate that these should include direct and indirect methods. Direct methods require students to demonstrate their learning or produce work that lets others judge whether or not outcomes have been achieved. Examples of direct assessment include a paper or test or evaluation of the campaign by a professional expert. Indirect measures involve asking students their perceptions about what they learned. Asking students, alumni and employers about their satisfaction with a program and measuring their job placement rate are examples of indirect assessment. Direct and indirect measures can be complementary and each tells a different part of the assessment story (Maki, 2004; Walvoord Anderson, 1998). 4. Embed assessment into ongoing instruction. The key here, according to Shulman, is to assess early and often. He suggests that assessment that is employed late in a course or program yields helpful pedagogical information when it’s too late to be of much use to students in that course. He says that assessment should be â€Å"a regular physical exam rather than a public autopsy† (p.6). This calls for what Shulman refers to as bilateral transparency. Progress toward learning outcomes should be accessible to both faculty and students. Shulman’s Seven Pillars of Assessment for Accountability invite a challenge for advertising educators. These pillars can be used to guide assessment that is multiple method, embedded, intentional, and iterative. To summarize, there is a need for strategic, intentional learning that improves as a result of evaluation of curriculum. Based on the assessment literature and specifically Shulman’s recommendations, we developed an assessment model called IDEA (Identification, Development, Evaluation and Application). This model illustrates the Teaching and Learning Cycle that is essential to the development of the overall plan for assessment, while providing a manageable â€Å"roadmap† for faculty to measure and improve student learning. The model suggests that faculty begin the assessment process by identifying and aligning a set of interconnected goals, including institutional, college, departmental, major, and course goals. Then, a qualitative and/or quantitative ins trument should be developed to measure specific learning outcomes that will assess the extent to which these goals were achieved. Next, evidence of student-learning should be collected, analyzed, and evaluated based on the specific goals that were identified at the beginning. The most important step is to apply the findings to improve student-learning. Finally, in order to complete the cycle, it is important to identify and align the various goals again and continue the assessment process. IDEA Model of Teaching and Learning: Taking Shulman’s advice to create bilateral transparency, this study focuses the assessment lens on a perspective that is often neglected: the students’. What is it that they report having learned? How does that match what faculty think they are grading and the course objectives they set? This exploratory study will show how assessment of the campaigns course has been attempted by one advertising program by implementing the IDEA model. In this case, the research questions for this study helped us to assess student learning at the course level. We wanted to investigate whether we teach what we are grading and grade what students are learning: RQ1: In what ways do student comments relate to what they learned in the capstone course match the instructor’s learning objectives for the course? RQ2: How do students rate the extent to which they achieved learning outcomes that include professional guidelines (AAF Principles), accrediting competencies (ACEJMC) and personal expectations? RQ3: What types of learning outcomes do students identify as most important? CHAPTER THREE Methodology Based on our experience working with faculty in our college to help them understand what assessment is and how it can help improve their teaching, two questions arise in almost every discussion: How is assessment different from grading? And, what is the difference between a teaching-objectives approach and a student-centered learning approach? As a result, an assessment method was developed that might offer an example of how faculty members could move from a teaching-objectives approach to a student learning focus, and in the process learn what assessment offers beyond meeting the course objectives. The capstone course, Advertising and Public Relations Campaigns, was the target course for this study as recommended by Rosenberry and Vicker (2006). It is an example of a course where cumulative learning and various other types of learning might be assessed. The purpose of this exploratory sequential mixed methods design was to explore student reflections on learning in the campaigns course with the intent of developing and testing a survey instrument that measures a variety of learning outcomes. The first phase of the study was a qualitative exploration of how students who have completed the advertising campaigns course at a large Midwestern university reflect on what they have learned in the course and how the course objectives match what they say they learned. These initial course objectives had been developed by the course instructors based on the ACEJMC assessment levels of learning (awareness, understanding, and application). After completing the campaigns course, students were asked to reflect on their development throughout the semester, using the course objectives as a guide. A total of 40 written student reflections from three sections were collected and categorized as pertaining to learning outcomes identified in the course ob jectives listed in the syllabus or additional learning outcomes that emerged from student responses. Students mentioned some of the course objectives and also listed things not on the list of objectives in the syllabus. The reason for collecting qualitative data initially is that an instrument needed to be developed that included more than the course objectives developed by the instructors. In the second, quantitative phase of the study, students’ statements and/or quotes from the qualitative data were used to develop an instrument to measure a more accurate list of learning outcomes among students in the campaigns course. In addition, profession related learning goals offered by The American Advertising Federation (AAF) and professional values and competencies listed by the Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC) were added to complete the list. In short, the revised instrument included learning expectations from an accrediting body, a professional group, as well as students themselves. For the quantitative phase of the study a new group of students from three different sections of the next semester’s campaigns course was asked to complete the revised list of learning outcomes by evaluating whether their team achieved the original course objectives and to what extent they, as individuals, achieved the revised list of learning objectives. Students were then asked to list the top three things they learned from the campaigns course. This ranking was added to provide a measure of the importance of the learning objectives. The revised assessment forms were completed by 51 students from three different sections and three different instructors of the campaigns course at the same institution. CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS A qualitative inventory of the responses to the initial form indicated that student comments were made about their learning on all three levels - awareness, understanding and application - and in about equal proportions. However, there were some learning objectives in each of the categories that were not mentioned in the open-ended comments. In addition, there were comments about what was learned that had not been identified by instructors. These additional comments were related to group learning as well as individual learning that had taken place. This finding was deemed by the researchers to be an example of how the professor’s view of what should be learned in a course may not match the students’ view of what they learned in the course. The traditional approach in higher education has been that the professor outlines the learning objectives, teaches to those expectations, and indicates in the grading how well the student has met those objectives. This first step in our investigation offered a reminder that what we teach may not be what students learn, but also made us cognizant that what students learn may be beyond the teaching objectives we set. The student comments related to individual and group learning were incorporated in the next version of the course evaluation form. The consistency of the student responses on the team and individual sections of the revised evaluation form offer evidence of content validity and reliability related to student-oriented learning outcomes. Almost every student indicated â€Å"yes† related to each of the team achievements on the list. Only one person answered â€Å"no† on four of the learning objective statements. There was greater diversity in the individual versus the team evaluations, but most of the students gave themselves a 4 or 5 on the learning outcome statements. On only four of the individual learning objectives did fewer than half of the students give themselves a high â€Å"5†. The following four statements had the lowest means and the highest standard deviations of this group of questions: â€Å"ability to speak in public† (M = 3.53, SD = 1.689), â€Å"developed leadership skills† (M = 4.18, SD = 1.090), â€Å"played mediator between group members† (M = 3.84, SD = 1.405), and â€Å"learned how to write clearly and concisely† (M = 3.96, SD = 1.371). It is possible that those who did not express high agreement with these statements may not have been presenters for the campaign presentation to the client, did not take a leadership role on the team, or did not think that this course was the place they learned to write clearly and concisely. It is also possible that students did not realize that they reinforced their writing skills in the course, even though those skills were not specifically taught in campaigns. We will need to investigate these learning outcome differences to determine if the statement wording needs revision or if the course does not provide everyone with the opportunity to advance in these areas. Qualitative analysis of student comments about the three top things learned in the campaigns course produced three skills categories identified by the students: professional, personal development and interpersonal. Those three categories were developed from 157 items identified by the 51 students in the three sections of the course. Of those, 43% (67) were professional skills related, 34% (53) were about interpersonal relationships and 23% (37) were personal development items. The differences between the three groups of students in number of items in each category were minimal (Professional 23, 23, 21; Interpersonal 20, 19, 14; Personal development 15, 14, 8). Personal development and interpersonal skills comments were categorized based on whether the comment was given in a group or team context or was offered as a statement about self-development. Student comments about professional skills included such things as: presentation skills, evaluation and application of research, strategy development, understanding of entire process, technology needed to produce what was needed, importance of attention to details, how to build a cohesive campaign, near perfection needed for client, and understanding of what it takes to develop a plans book. Interpersonal skills included such items as: team work, client communication, need to share ideas, put differences aside for the welfare of the group, learn to rely on others and let them rely on you, need to compromise in order to succeed, and group communication is important. Statements about personal development items included such things as: learn to accept criticism, keep an open mind, master multi-tasking, think outside the box, learn to take responsibility, don’t take it personally, learn to compromise, learn to handle frustration, time management, patience is key, my ability may be more than I thought, and this experience confirmed that I do love the ad business. The richness of the student comments provided evidence that they can delineate different types of learning emanating from the campaigns experience. One item, time management, was difficult to categorize because it wasn’t always part of a statement related to self, or the group. It was included in the personal development category for this study because it was often used in a personal trait context. However, this is an item that needs to be investigated in more depth. It may be that time management skills could be considered as important for all three categories. What We Learned From Conducting This Exploratory Study Research question 1 asked, â€Å"In what ways do student comments related to what they learned in the capstone course match the instructor’s learning objectives for the course?† We discovered that student comments indicate the instructor’s learning objectives do match their views of what they learned in many cases, but students also report that there are additional types of learning that go beyond what is traditionally measured with grades that are tied to requirements or expectations listed in the syllabus. Research question 2 asked, â€Å"How do students rate the extent to which they achieved learning outcomes that include professional guidelines, accrediting competencies, and personal expectations?† Our findings indicate that students say they generally have met the professional and accrediting expectations in the capstone course as well as the personal expectations. However, we also were able to identify four skill areas where some students indicated the course did not help them meet the learning expectations. This provides information that could help develop changes in the course materials or assignments that might improve learning in those areas. Research question 3 asked, â€Å"What types of learning outcomes do student identify as most important?† Students in the campaigns course were able to help identify three types of learning that came from their class experience. The first type related to professional skills, which are often part of the grading rubric for courses offered in a professional program. Discovery of the other two types of learning – personal development and interpersonal skills – expands our knowledge of what students learn in a course beyond what was listed as learning objectives in the syllabus. It is our hope that the findings of this study might help faculty members understand the importance of developing assessment techniques that measure learning experiences outside and beyond the class assignments that are part of the grading rubric. Perhaps faculty will see that student input and feedback related to learning objectives can help make course instruction more student-centered. Our plan is to refine this method in the campaigns course and then apply it to other courses in the advertising program, as well as the capstone courses for the other majors offered in our college. CHAPTER FIVE Discussion The purpose of this paper was to investigate how educators might define measurable outcomes for a capstone course and to help faculty and administrators develop tools to build a sustainable plan to evaluate student learning. Based on current conventional practices in assessment, accrediting bodies demand that faculty complete the transition from teacher-centered education to learning-outcome accountability. The accrediting process requires that institutions not only create plans and assess student learning, but that they use the information from their activities to demonstrate how learning opportunities are improved as a result. One place to start assessing learning in the advertising major is the culminating experience students get in the capstone campaigns course. This paper offers the IDEA model for assessment of teaching and learning, which starts by identifying and aligning institutional, departmental and course goals. The goal in this example was to assess if we teach what we are grading and if we grade what we are teach what we are grading and if we grade what we are teaching. We then developed an instrument to measure evidence of student learning pertaining to this goal, collected and analyzed qualitative and quantitative data, and demonstrated how we used it to improve student learning. The last step of the IDEA model is to go back and start the cycle again by identifying and aligning goals. This study followed Shulman’s (2007) recommendation that assessment should be bilaterally transparent. Missing from existing literature is a notion that students had input or feedback into creating the learning objectives. This investigation focused the assessment efforts narrowly, exploring how students reflect on whether the course objectives matched their learning, and asking how they rate learning outcomes that include professional and personal expectations. Findings indicated what was expected to a certain extent. Students reported that they believed they learned what the faculty had established for course objectives. Most interesting however, was the notion that the students themselves believed they learned more than the instructors expected. Three themes emerged in the qualitative portion of the study, which categorized students’ responses: professional skills, interpersonal skills and personal development. To the literature about campaigns courses, this study adds the notion that the personal component is an important learning outcome of the campaigns course as identified by students. Overall, this study demonstrates that it is not necessary to assess every element in a program to be informed about certain parts of it. Incremental assessment conducted over time with multiple measures helps give a fuller picture of the learning experience. While this study is an example of an indirect measure of assessment, faculty needs to add to the assessment story with other evaluations of the course, such as critiques by professional panels and reviews by the clients, which directly measure student learning. Completing the assessment cycle, it is important to implement changes based on evidence generated in the process. Faculty has choices to accomplish improvements. To implement what was learned in this particular case, faculty could revise the learning outcomes and reflect that in the grading. One way to apply the findings of this study to the campaigns course would be to incorporate a â€Å"personal development† component into the grading rubric and share it with the students at the beginning of the semester. Grading rubrics are an effective way to articulate expectations to students (Lattuca, 2005). It involves establishing and defining standards that must be met. In this study, the first step is to define â€Å"personal development,† which can be accomplished in a variety of ways. For example, the instructor could provide one by referring to the literature. However, a much more student-centered approach would be to involve students and to ask them to define and reflect on what â€Å"personal development† means in the campaigns course. This could be achieved by implementing an assessment plan similar to the one we presented here. The definition could then become part of the grading rubric and measured by indicating to what extent â€Å"personal development† was achieved by each student. It would be the instructor’s discretion to determine the percentage of the grade that â€Å"personal development† should account for. The grading rubric should be re-evaluated each semester as part of the continuous assessment process. On the other hand, if the instructor does not believe that â€Å"personal development† should be graded, she could simply ask students to reflect on this particular learning outcome and again measure it based on an operational definition as another way to assess what students learn in the course. This study demonstrates that grading is not the same as assessment. We learned that students report learning personal development skills that are not taken into account when grades are given. We now know that an important part of the course includes that dimension. We, as faculty, can choose to integrate it in the grade with rubrics that reflect this component or keep it as a separate ungraded component of the course. The instructors teaching the campaigns course at our institution have incorporated the â€Å"personal development† component in different ways. One has included it in the grading rubric, while another chose to discuss it with students at various points throughout the semester. In both cases, students will be asked at the end of this semester to reflect on this important component, which will again become part of the assessment cycle. Limitations The primary limitation of this study is the relatively small sample size. The findings are meant to be an illustration of how one institution has assessed a specific component of the advertising campaigns course. Future Directions As indicated in the IDEA model of teaching and learning, the most important piece of assessment is to view it as an ongoing process. We need to assess student learning systematically over time so that we can continuously improve it. The next step for us is to assess what advertising alumni say they have learned in the capstone course. This will add another chapter to our assessment story because students who have just completed the course but haven’t had any professional experience may not know what they have learned until they are somewhat established in the professional world. References AACU National Leadership Council for Liberal Education America’s Promise. (2007). College Learning for the New Global Century. Washington, DC: Association of American College and Universities. Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC).Retrieved March 17, 2007 from http://www2.ku.edu/~acejmc/PROGRAM/STANDARDS.SHTML#std9 (assessment standard) 2ku.edu/~acejmc/PROGRAM/STANDARDS.SHTML#std2 (competency list) Ahles, C. B. Bosworth, C. C. (2004). The perception and reality of students and workplace teams. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 59 (1), 42-59. Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. (AACSB). Eligibility procedures and accreditation standards for business accreditation. Retrieved March 21, 2007 from (aacsb.edu/accreditation/business/STANDARDS.pdf. Barnes, S. (1985). A study of classroom pupil evaluation: The missing link in teacher education, Journal of Teacher Education, 36, 46-49. Benigni, V. L., Cameron, G. T. (1999). Teaching PR campaigns: The current state of the art. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, (59) 3, 50-60. Boyer, E.L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Chronicle Review (2006, Sept. 1) The Spellings Report, Warts and All. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53 (2). Cohen, J. (2004). Assessment . . . yours, mine, ours. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 59 (1), 3-6. Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ganahl, D. (2003). Evaluating a professional advertising/PR curriculum: Aligning the liberal arts curriculum with professional expectations. Journal of Advertising Education, 7(2), 24-32. Gilbert, L. A., Schilt, P.E., Ekland-Olson, S. (2005). Engaging students: Integrated learning and research across disciplinary boundaries. Liberal Education (Summer/Fall 2005), 44-49. Giese, M. (2005). An educator’s journal: Evaluating and evaluated. Journalism Mass Communication Educator, 60 (3), 252-256. Hersh, R. H. (2005). What does college teach? It’s time to put an end to â€Å"faith-based† acceptance of higher education’s quality. The Atlantic Monthly, November 2005 , 140-143. Lattuca, L. R. (2005). Making learning visible: Student and peer evaluation. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 60 (3), 247-251. Maki, P. L. (2002). Moving from paperwork to pedagogy: Channeling intellectual curiosity into a commitment to assessment. AAHE Bulletin, May 2002. Retrieved Feb. 14, 2007 from http://wwww.aacsb.edu/resource_centers/assessment/Maki- Reprint.asp. Maki, P. L. (2004). Assessing for learning: Building a sustainable commitment across the institution. Sterling, VA: American Association for Higher Education. Pollio, H. R., Humphries, W. L., Milton, O. (1989). Components of contemporarycollege grade meanings. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14, 77-91. Rosenberry, J. Vicker, L.A. (2006). Capstone courses in mass communication programs. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 61 (3), 267-283. Rowntree, D. (1987). Assessing students: How shall we know them? (2nd ed.) London: Kogan Page. Shulman, L. S. (2007). Counting and recounting: Assessment and the quest for accountability. Change, 39 (1), (carnegiefoundation.org/change/) Umphrey, D., Fullerton, J. (2004). Attitudes toward grades among advertising majors. Journal of Advertising Education (8)1, 39-47. Walvoord, B. E., Anderson, V. J. (1998). Effective Grading: A Tool for Learning and Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Appendix A ACEJMC PRINCIPLES OF ACCREDITATION: Professional values and competencies (adopted Sept. 16, 2000) Individual professions in journalism and mass communication may require certain specialized values and competencies. Irrespective of their particular specialization, all graduates should be aware of certain core values and competencies and be able to: Understand and apply First Amendment principles and the law appropriate to professional practice; Demonstrate an understanding of the history and role of professionals and institutions in shaping communications; Demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of groups in a global society in relationship to communications; Understand concepts and apply theories in the use and presentation of images and information; Work ethically in pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity; Think critically, creatively and independently; Conduct research and evaluate information by methods appropriate to the communications professions in which they work; Write correctly and clearly in forms and styles appropriate for the communications professions, audiences and purposes they serve; Critically evaluate their own work and that of others for accuracy and fairness, clarity, appropriate style and grammatical correctness; Apply basic numerical and statistical concepts; Apply tools and technologies appropriate for the communications professions in which they work Appendix B A Statement of Principles for Advertising Education Programs, National Academic Committee American Advertising Federation (July 2006) 1. Advertising students should know the following: A. The institutions of advertising, their history, and how they relate to each other. B. How advertising is coordinated with marketing and other aspects of a company or organization’s activities. C. Management of the advertising function and personnel in agencies and client organizations. D. A wide range of alternatives for delivering advertising messages and how to use those delivery vehicles. E. The conceptual basis for crafting advertising messages. F. How advertising is regulated. G. Ethical principles for advertising practices. H. Research methodologies appropriate to guiding advertising strategy and evaluating its results. I. An appreciation for the diversity of markets and audiences for whom advertisers create campaigns and messages. J. Critical thinking, written, oral and visual communication, and presentation skills. K. The ability to work with others to solve problems creatively. 2. Instruction in advertising courses should include both theory and practical application, such as the National Student Advertising Competition (Relevant to ACEJMC Standard 2). 3. Advertising faculty members should have professional experience relevant to the courses they teach (Relevant to ACEJMC Standard 4). 4. Advertising students should be strongly encouraged to gain work experience before graduation through campus media and internships (Relevant to ACEJMC Standard 2) 5. Advertising students should be proficient in using equipment and technology they will use in their careers (Relevant to ACEJMC Standard 2). 6. Advertising programs should be assessed using multiple measures, which could include: Participation in regional and national competitions, such as the National Student Competition, ADDYs, and competitive internship programs Capstone papers Journals and reflection pieces Focus groups Benchmark measurements (pre-tests/ post-tests of courses and senior year Portfolios of student work Research Papers on Assessing What Students LearnStandardized TestingThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThree Concepts of PsychodynamicInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaThe Project Managment Office SystemIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHip-Hop is Art

Two Industries in Different Market Structures

Two Industries in Different Market Structures Introduction An industry consists of many closely related firms offering differentiated goods and services. These firms offer similar products with minor modifications that make them different. The modifications are in terms of shape, size, or form of the products that make them different. Before starting a company, it is crucial to determine the industry structure within which the company lies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Two Industries in Different Market Structures specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More An industry structure refers to the number of firms in an industry and their size. If an industry comprises of small size firms in relation to the size of the industry, this form is a fragmented industry. On the other hand, a consolidated industry has a few small firms having a large market share. There are various types of industry structures depending on the concentration ratio. This ratio indicates the relative si ze of firms in relation to the whole industry (Scherer, 1996, p. 298). It shows if an industry consists of a few large firms, or several small firms. Therefore, the industry structure could be a perfect competition, a monopoly, a monopolistic competition, or an oligopoly. In a perfect competition market structure, no firm dominates the other. The firms sell similar products and the prices are set through the market forces of demand and supply. In a monopoly structure, there is only one firm in the industry. This firm sells high value products and sets the price in the market. A monopolistic competition is different from monopoly; it is an imperfect market consisting of many suppliers who sell differentiated products. These suppliers decide to set prices in the market. Finally, an oligopoly is a market structure that has a few suppliers with barriers to entry (Porter, 1979, p.15). This article analyses two industries in different market structures. Industry A Definition Industry A ha s 20 firms with a Concentration Ratio (CR) of 30%. This industry falls under a perfect competition market. In this type of industry, many firms sell similar products and services without one dominating the other (Porter, 1979, p.11). This industry has a CR of 30% meaning that, the largest firms in this industry own only 30% of the market share. Therefore, the industry is extremely competitive with a number of the 20 firms competing fairly. No firm dominates the other in this industry through owning a large market share. In this industry, the firms sell identical products, and they take the price set by market forces of demand and supply.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Characteristics This industry, being a perfect competition, has several characteristics. It consists of a many small firms that sell identical products. These firms have little influence on the price of the products. The market forces of demand and supply determine the price charged in this industry. This industry also consists of many buyers who are price takers. Their purchase of the products does not affect the price. The products sold are similar; therefore, the consumers are indifferent when purchasing these products. They can purchase from any supplier without affecting other suppliers. In this industry, there are no barriers to entry or exit in the industry. Firms are free to join and leave the industry without restrictions. Technological, social, legal, or economic barriers are not characteristic of this industry. Firms can choose to start or end production of their products at any time they wish. In this industry, firms and buyers do not incur any transactional costs in their operations. The firms aim at maximizing profits at the break-even point where â€Å"marginal revenue is equal to marginal costs† (Oster, 1994, p.231). There is perfect information in the in dustry, and all stakeholders are aware of the price charged in the market. If a firm raises the price, consumers shift to other sellers who sell at the prevailing market price. Consumers know the prevailing market price producers know the costs and workers know their wages and salaries. This way, there is free flow of information in the market. Adjustments The forces of demand and supply influence the price in this industry in different ways. If demand increases, price goes up, and if supply increases, the price reduces and the vice versa is true. These adjustments have various implications in both the short-run and the long run. In this scenario, if demand increased prices will go up. In the short run, it is possible for an individual firm to make profits. This phenomenon is possible because the firm can continue selling its products without incurring extra costs. However, in the end, this firm may not sustain the profits. According to Sheth and Sisodia, the industry will adjust it self by having many firms entering the industry (2001, p. 451). They do this in an effort to take advantage of the profits that the single firm was making because, in this industry, there is free entry of firms to the market. The price will then reduce because of the many firms in the industry, and this will benefit consumers in the end. This adjustment will affect the concentration ratio of the industry. It will reduce the CR for the industry because of the many firms in the industry. The industry becomes less competitive, and some firms may again start leaving the industry.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Two Industries in Different Market Structures specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Industry B Definition Industry B has 20 firms and a Concentration Ratio of 80%. This industry is an oligopolistic industry because it has a high concentration of 80%. Few large suppliers dominate this industry and the leading firms tak e a large section of the market share (Lee, 1998, p.71). Firms in this industry compete fiercely through advertising in an effort to lead the market. Firms control the operations of the industry with restrictive terms, such as restricting the amount of production. Industry B has the characteristics of an oligopoly. Characteristics Firms in this industry aim at maximizing profits, where the marginal revenue and marginal costs are equal. The firms set the prices to charge in this market by having total control. There are barriers to enter in this industry. These include barriers related to economies of scale, access to costly and expensive technology. Few large firms control the entire industry. These firms are large compared to the entire industry size. Firms in this industry produce either similar products or differentiated products. In an identical product oligopoly, firms produce inputs for other industries. On the other hand, a differentiated product oligopoly produces products f or final consumption according to the needs of buyers. This industry has three pricing models. The kinked demand asserts that if a particular firm raises its price, other firms will not follow that trend. In contrast, if the firm reduces its price, competitors enter the market. In collusive pricing, a cartel controls the price for their benefit. Finally, there is price leadership where a large firm dominates the others and sets the price for others to follow. Description Industry B has a high concentration ratio than industry B because the industry consists of few large firms that control the market. These firms have a large market share; therefore, the concentration in the industry is high. In contrast, industry A has a low concentration ratio because of the many firms in the industry. These firms do not have any influence in the industry. The industry has competitive firms that are price takers hence the low CR. It is not possible for small firms to thrive in industry B because, t his industry has a high concentration and only large firms are able to control the market. Smaller firms will have little or no influence, and their market share is relatively small (Sheth Sisodia, 2001, p.423). These firms are not in a position to set prices in the market since they have little influence. Only large firms with enormous influence can thrive in industry B. Conclusion It is prudent to consider the industry structure and concentration before a firm can enter the industry. This is because the size of the firm determines the category in which it falls. Small firms with a low ratio are likely to fit in competitive markets. In these markets, they will have little influence over the price. The market forces of demand and supply and demand will determine the price. On the other hand, large firms fit in oligopolistic markets. They control a large market share of the industry and influence price changes.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Lee, F. (1998). Post-Keynesian Price Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oster, M. (1994). Modern competitive analysis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Porter, M. (1979). How competitive forces shape strategy. Harvard Business Review, 57(2), 10-17. Scherer, F. (1996). Industry structure, strategy, and public policy. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Sheth, J., Sisodia, R. (2001). The rule of three: Surviving and thriving in competitive  Markets. New York, NY: The Free Press.

Interpersonal communication Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Interpersonal communication - Case Study Example I experienced great diversity and unique cultural backgrounds at my workplace. Everyone at workplace seemed to have a different view in nearly all activities that we engaged in. I realized that as I continued to interact with workmates, each one of them seemed to present their individual backgrounds, try to portray their past experiences and values. The experience of diversity provoked my interest and I began to develop new friends that would match the new environment (Corbin & White, 2008). I preferred to work and share closely with individuals of diverse groups and backgrounds with the central aim of exploring personal connection. It is imperative to that diversity experience and success in building new friends with different cultural beliefs and values influenced me to like the job. The feeling of heterogeneous culture within the workplace and ability to accept my co-workers beliefs and values enabled me to interact closely and learn more about other cultures. In addition, knowledge of multiculturalism aspects within a diverse population enabled me to develop intimate relationships with my co-workers, supervisors, and other friends. We would share about our different cultural practices including learning each other’s language with the intimate workmates (Corbin & White, 2008). Consequently, the feeling of knowing and speaking a foreign language become interesting and I felt encouraged to explore my workmates cultural backgrounds. As I became more intimate and personally connected to learning other cultures, I developed preference for working in the company. It is imperative that the knowledge of multiculturalism remained essential in fostering a healthy work practice and relationship. I developed the ability to accept and recognize my co-workers, supervisors, and other friends by valuing them as equally important, an experience that propelled my career success. In